Theme 3: Research and theory

1. Briefly explain to a first year student what theory is, and what theory is not.

Theory is a way of explaining a phenomenon, a specific description. The theory tries to concretize why, how and when things occurred. The intentions of the description are to promote a bigger understanding into the specific phenomenon. Scholars like Kaplan and Merton define theory as the answer to queries of why. A theory has to be proved in a logical sequence with clear arguments to why something is as it is.

This leads to the explanation of what theory is not. The authors Sutton and Staw give five examples of what theory is not: references, data, list of variables or constructs, diagrams and hypotheses. The reason why references are not theory is because by only listing references to existing theories is not the same as explicating the logic order of the theories in the context. Sutton and Staw say this “References are sometimes used like a smoke screen to hide the absence of theory.” The same mind-set can be applied on the other four examples. Data, diagrams and hypothesis are supposed to be used as a tool to explain or clarify the theory and therefore it cannot be used to answer the question why, that is required to classify as theory.



2. Describe the major theory or theories that are used in your selected paper. Which theory type (see Table 2 in Gregor) can the theory or theories be characterized as?

For this question I chose an article from the Journal of Communication called Historicizing New Media: A Content Analysis of Twitter. The major theory used in my article is the type analysis. As the title reveals the purpose of this article is to analyse the rise of Twitter, who are the users and in which way do they use this service, what is the content. The authors refer to earlier examples of diaries, analyse the content and draw parables to the user content of Twitter. As foundation to their theories they use historical literature from the 18th and 19th century and the way diaries were used then. In Table 2 the attributes of analysis are that ”it says what is. No causal relationships among phenomena are specified and no predictions are made.” The authors don’t make any predictions, they just explain how it used to be and use that information to make sense out of the content on Twitter. They don’t mention anything about the future and how it could be, just the present.



3. Which are the benefits and limitations of using the selected theory or theories?

The benefits of using the theory type analysis that it answers the question ”what is”. It is an important form of theory when you have little or no knowledge about the specific phenomena. It gives a deeper understanding of the phenomena, which the reader needs to really understand the context. The limitations of the theory are that it doesn’t connect the analysis with future predictions, which could wider the context of the content. The theory doesn’t go beyond analysis and description, which imitate the information given to the readers.

Theme 2: Reflection

The text for this week’s seminar was partially a bit difficult to grasp. Adorno and Horkheimer were sometimes very critical and negative, for example when they discuss the culture industry. They sound like grumpy old men who are only negative because things were changing and they didn’t like it. Their critique against Hollywood and the movie industry is pretty harsh, in their eyes it’s not considered as art. During the seminar this week we discussed this matter, what is art? There’s no right or wrong answer, everyone has their own definition. Some people might agree with the authors and say that the modern movie industry doesn’t produce art, only content to please the audience. The happy endings and predictable stories give the audience a satisfaction but not an intellectual challenge, like theater or art, some might say.

Art is a wide term and the definition depends a lot on one’s personal reference points. The making of movies is one art form and it differs from theater, but the foundation is the same, to tell a story. I know many people who love movies but never would walk into a theater for different reasons. One reason is that there’s as much action in the theater as in the movies and some people think that they don’t belong in the theater, it’s not for them, it’s considered ”upper-class art”.

For me, the definition of art is a form of expression to tell a story, whether it’s music, theater, a sculpture or origami. One could discuss it forever, there will always be different opinions just as long as everyone has found their own definition of art. That's my biggest lesson learned from the seminar.

During the lecture we discussed a quote from the text by Adorno and Horkheimer saying this: ” Communication establishes uniformity among men by isolating them.” In connection to this quote we discussed social media and how it affects the interaction between people. Nowadays we have all the opportunities in the world to communicate with whomever we like, there are no geographical restrictions like before. But even if we can communicate easily with each other it’s still difficult to get out of the comfort zone and interact with others. With the help of social media you can find others who share the same opinions, music taste or sports team, find like-minded. So instead to broaden our horizons we unite with like-minded and therefore the society gets more uniform instead of wider. This is one way of seeing it and it’s my interpretation of the quote.

Theme 2: Critical Media Studies

1. What is Enlightenment?

During the mid seventeenth century stretching to the late eighteenth century, Europe and the western civilization went through a time era called “the Enlightenment”. “The thought” in the bourgeois society changed and a revolution took place in areas such culture, science and philosophy. Society started to question existing knowledge and develop new ways of thinking and the life of mankind. The birth of the “advanced though” appeared during this era and is the foundation of how we see the world today.

2. What is the meaning and function of “myth” in Adorno and Horkheimer’s argument?

Quoting the authors: “Myth is already enlightenment. And enlightenment reverts to mythology.” The meaning and definition of myth refers to the ancient stories, which are the foundation, the beginning, of many religions existing today. The myths are passed on from generation to generation and will live as long as mankind. According to Adorno and Horkheimer’s argument the myths shouldn’t just be passed by as stories, they contribute to enlightenment and act as a tool to maintain the development. In the future the enlightenment of today, may have converted to myths.

3. What are the “old” and “new” media that are discussed in the Dialectic of Enlightenment?
The ”old media” is presented as culture that’s not modified to fit the masses. The old cinema and theater that showed material in the way the producer wanted it to be, not to make the production companies happy for the purpose of making a box office success. If it was a tragic story it was a tragic ending, not modified to make the audience satisfied with a happy ending, like the tragic story of Hamlet. The purpose from the beginning was to tell a story, not to force a happy ending and all smiles.

The “new media” the authors define, for example, as the modern television and movies. The new kind of talent shows, produced to play on people's emotions and in the end, make commercial successes. The talents are there to make money for the corporations. Sometimes artistic quality may give way to commercialism.

4. What is meant by “culture industry”?

Most of the things that we as humans perceive in the society are filtered through what we call “culture industry”. Films, radio, television, magazines and the Internet are parts of our culture as we define it today. What producers, editors and journalists want to show is their definition of the world we’re living in. The information we receive is approved by those people and may be a reflection of reality or a modified version to fit the norms and rules of the society. The authors wrote the following “Their ideology is business”, which I interpret as critique to the modern culture industry. The economic gains are often a more important force than informative qualitative content.

5. What is the relationship between mass media and “mass deception”, according to Adorno and Horkheimer?

Mass media is an expression used very commonly today and includes: radio, television and newspapers/magazines. “Mass deception” according to my interpretation of the texts is the way mass media negatively use their power to try to control people. The relationship between mass media and “mass deception” therefore is how “the truth” we, as citizens, perceive may have been modified or censored for different reasons. What we perceive in our everyday life is the “truth” or “knowledge”, predetermined by people who runs profit-driven companies that may not only have good intentions. The content produced by mass media is in the manner of “one size fits all”, and it’s best to satisfy as many people as possible. So what we see may not be “the truth and nothing but the truth” and instead it’s a mass deception to us as citizens.

6. Please identify one or two concepts/terms that you find particularly interesting. Motivate your choice.

The authors use the term “barbarism” in different discussions in the texts. I find it interesting, as well as the authors, that in some way in our modern society we still lean towards barbarism which we should have left behind a long time ago. Human civilization went through “the Enlightenment” as mentioned earlier, and still incidents occur that in many ways belong more in the definition of barbarism. Mankind should have developed the thoughts, ideas and ideological views during the era of enlightenment to advance from the previous definitions of civilizations. When I say this I have in mind all the ongoing wars in the world, discrimination and racism to mention a few examples. The barbarism shouldn’t win over the important revolution mankind went through during the seventeenth and eighteens century.

Theme 1: Reflection

Just as Russell explains that different persons perceive sense data differently they way people interpret his texts also differs. You can always interpret written words (and the speaking language as well) in different ways, depending on many things, like previous experiences or knowledge about the subject.  After reading several blog posts explaining the same four questions I see different interpretations of Russell’s words. Some have interpreted him literally while others have processed the texts based on earlier experiences. They way people choose to interpret a text written by someone else can never be true or false. Sure, I can disagree with someone and believe that my opinion is the right one, but that’s only based on my experiences and ideas. Someone else could justify the opposite opinion and claim it’s the right one. Whether you’re right or wrong depends on how you can justify your opinion and convince other people to believe your opinion is true.

At first when I started read the text I didn’t entirely understand the purpose of the texts. My previous experience in reading philosophical texts equals zero and it differs from reading novels or scientific texts. While reading Russell’s texts my mind kept on spinning. I really had to reflect upon each sentence and try to grasp the meaning of the words and since there’s no right or wrong I could twist around my mind many times. It was then I realized the purpose of reading these texts, to really reflect about the content. To think critically and question the ideas and thoughts written by the author, his word does not necessarily equal the truth. This kind of thinking I did during the reading is something I need to put in my toolbox and bring with me during the rest of my education and also through life.

The knowledge I receive from this course will help me to reflect and question “truth” and “knowledge” I will encounter in the future. Just because I read something in a scientific report it doesn’t mean I have knowledge in the particular subject, there’s so much more than just reading the written words. What are the underlying causes and what is the purpose? Questions I need to reflect upon, all the time.

Theme 1: Theory of science

       

1. What does Russell mean by "sense data" and why does he introduce this notion? What is the meaning of the terms "proposition" and "statement of fact"? 

How do we know that objects around us are real and not only in our imagination? And if there is a real object what kind of object it is and how can we distinguish it from other objects? This is, in my opinion, the main reason why Russell chooses to introduce the notion “sense data”. To know if an object is real or not we can use our senses to gain an understanding about it, and therefore use our vision, hearing and tactility for example. Sense data responds to the characteristics we perceive when we use our senses in examining an object. Those characteristics could respond to colors, sounds, smells or the feeling of a surface, like smooth or soft. The sense data of an object is individual for everyone, what I perceive as a sense data doesn’t necessarily correspond to the same in another persons mind. What kind of sense data a person perceives can in many cases depend on earlier experiences. If I, for example, have seen a similar object before I may experience it in another way than someone who hasn’t seen it before, I may have some preconceptions about it. The color I define as black could correspond to dark blue if you ask someone else, and it depends a lot of the person’s point of reference.

2. How does propositions and statement of facts differ from other kinds of verbal expressions?

 A statement is often used when we try to describe an object, a situation or a person. “The Earth is the forth planet from the sun”, is one type of statement. When you make a statement about something you have to be able to prove that your statement is true if anyone questions it. A statement comes with the requirement that it need to be backed up evidence, knowledge in the form of hardcore facts. A proposition on the other hand does not require the same need for evidence because it’s often used while guessing. When you define something as a proposition it can be something said about a person or a future situation we actually know nothing about. We know that it exists but we don’t everything about it and might not be able to prove it. The way, which these two words differ from other verbal expressions, is that they are based on some kind of knowledge. A statement requires total knowledge and a proposition some form of knowledge. Other verbal expressions can be used only based on earlier experience or rumors for example, and not based on knowledge.

3. In chapter 5 ("Knowledge by Acquaintance and Knowledge by Description") Russell introduces the notion "definite description". What does this notion mean?

Russell introduces the notion “definite description” and refers to a phrase of the form “the so-and-so”. This form refers to descriptions that are more than just a noun. Just the expression “a girl” is not a definite description since it doesn’t say anything about the girl, it could refer to any random girl. But if we would say “the girl with the blue eyes and the red hat”, this expression would be a definite description. Now we know a lot more about the specific girl and might be able to distinguish her from other girls. Definite descriptions may differ from one person to another. Someone who knows a person quite well might have a different definite description than someone who just heard rumors and jumps to conclusions. Negative definite descriptions can stop people from getting to know a person even though they don’t know if the descriptions are true or not. Descriptions can make people judge each other without any real knowledge, so it’s best to choose the words carefully.

4. In chapter 13 ("Knowledge, Error and Probable Opinion") and in chapter 14 ("The Limits of Philosophical Knowledge") Russell attacks traditional problems in theory of knowledge (epistemology). What are the main points in Russell's presentation?

You read an article in a newspaper and tell your friends about it. Since you think the newspaper is a credible source, you now believe that you have knowledge about the subject in the article. Some of your friends don’t question you and now believe that they also have knowledge about the subject in matter. But one of your friends thinks the article seems unreliable and questions the original sources. You answer that you don’t know where the newspaper got their facts. The problem is that the knowledge in this article could be based on a false belief and everything can be untrue. A belief of something cannot be considered to be based on knowledge. A belief is just a belief and nothing more. A less experienced reader may believe everything the newspaper writes even though it can be based on beliefs.
When you talk about self-evident you might believe that it’s absolutely true. But you can never be certain that it’s actually true, there’s no guarantee. Sometimes when you jump from facts to judgments it’s a possibility that you make a mistake, an error. A judgment doesn’t need to refer to the facts and therefore you can’t tell that it’s true. This was two problems Russell raised.

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